19 in the development of science. Education and science in the first half of the 19th century

1. Parish schools for children of peasants; In the first half of the 19th century, education and enlightenment received further development . The basis for the development of the education system was the reform of 1803. The following types of educational institutions were established:

2. District schools for citizens;

3. Provincial gymnasiums for noble children;

4. Universities.

The country was divided into 6 educational districts, each of which had educational institutions of all types.

The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions. In addition to Moscow University, universities were opened in Kazan, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilna, Dorpat. Lyceums close to universities in terms of curriculum were Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg, Demidovsky in Yaroslavl, Richelievsky in Odessa. These were mainly educational institutions of the nobility. Every decade, more and more commoners entered universities. Thus, at the beginning of the 19th century, the number of universities in Russia increased. However, only 4 thousand students studied there.

Russian universities began to announce their scientific research.

In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. List of only greatest discoveries looks quite impressive.

- Mathematics.

In the field of mathematics: N.I. Lobachevsky created a theory non-Euclidean geometry, making a revolution in ideas about the nature of space, which was based on more than two thousand years Euclid's doctrine. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. It was only on the 100th anniversary (1893) of his birth that his works became widely recognized and an international prize was established in his name.

For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.

A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky - were engaged probability theory .

- Astronomy.

Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy, the works received worldwide recognition V.Ya. Struve. Works on astrometry and study double stars gained worldwide fame. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space.

Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances.

The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was I.I. Littrov, who built a small observatory. His student is better known in astronomy THEM. Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.

- Development of physics.

The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena nature. He made a huge contribution to the study of electricity V.V. Petrov. He created a number of physical instruments and discovered electric arc, which has found wide practical use; E.H. Lenz formulated a rule defining direction of induction current ; B.S. Jacobi designed several electric motors. In the 1840-1850s. B.S. Jacobi was developing a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications.

Engineer P.D. Shilling before the American inventor S. Morse created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line; mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834 built the first in Russia railway steam-powered; metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, based on a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

- Progress in chemistry.

Mendeleev installed Periodic law chemical elements.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P. Zinin And K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline etc. His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes and medicines in the country. And in 1844, Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.

A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.

- Medicine.

The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The famous Russian surgeon was a professor at the academy N.I. Pirogov, founder of military field surgery. He was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. N.V. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

- Story.

Special attention devoted to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created a 12-volume History of the Russian State; CM. Soloviev wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes; IN. Klyuchevsky wrote "A Course in Russian History".

- Linguistics.

Linguistics has made significant achievements. IN AND. Dahl for 50 years he worked on compiling “an explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language.”

- Philosophy.

The 19th century was the time of the formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science. It develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements. Large figures: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, Vladimir Solovyov.

- Geography.

The inclusion of new territories into the Russian Empire contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. lay in the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. At the same time, the seas and inland water basins of the Russian Empire were studied and described. As a result, maps and a description of the territory were drawn up, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.

A number of expeditions around the world were made. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (one-sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them. Scientific research were rarely subsidized by Russian entrepreneurs, as in Europe.

Material and moral reward for the work of the most talented Russian scientists was the awarding of the Demidov Prize by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1831) for published works on science, technology, and art.

In the first half of the 19th century, the development of education continued. Before early XIX centuries, personal libraries in Russia were the property of the titled aristocracy. Gradually, reading became not just a fashion, but an urgent need.

In the first half of the 19th century, salons became centers of cultural life in educated society. Some noble houses began to turn into literary salons, attracting prominent writers, journalists, scientists, and artists. In St. Petersburg, salons were widely known A.P. Tail And A.O. Smirnova, in Moscow - A.P. Elagina, in Kazan - A. Fuchs.

Public lectures by university teachers became a means of disseminating education among the population. They were varied in subject matter. The initiative in organizing public lectures belonged to Moscow University. In the 40s of the 19th century, lectures acquired wide public significance. T.N. Granovsky on general history.

In general, the development of education, enlightenment and science in the first half of the 19th century achieved impressive results .

EDUCATION AND SCIENCE IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX century.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated to an unprecedented degree the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people, its consolidation (rally). There was a rapprochement with the Russian people of other peoples of Russia. The cultural upsurge was also facilitated by the policy of “enlightened absolutism” that Alexander I adhered to at the beginning of his reign.

Universities, gymnasiums, schools. According to a decree adopted in 1803, the country was divided into 6 educational districts, in each of which it was planned to found a university. But in 1804, only Kazan University was opened. In 1819, the St. Petersburg one began to operate. Under Nicholas I, not a single university was opened. At the largest university, Moscow, in 1811 there were only 215 students, in 1831 there were 814. Nicholas I forbade the admission of children of serfs to universities. A level of knowledge close to university level was provided by lyceums - Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg and Demidovsky in Yaroslavl. Lyceums generally retained their class-noble character.

In 1815, the famous Armenian Lazarev family founded the Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow and maintained it at their own expense for a hundred years. The Lazarev Institute did a lot to introduce Russia to the culture of the East and to train Russian diplomats sent to eastern countries.

By the beginning of the 19th century. in Russia there was only one higher educational institution of a technical profile - the Mining Institute in St. Petersburg. Under Alexander I, the Forestry Institute was opened. Nicholas I patronized engineering, technical and military education. Under him, the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and the Moscow Technical School, as well as the Academy of the General Staff, the Engineering Academy and the Artillery Academy were opened.

According to the decree of 1803, secondary educational institutions (gymnasiums) were supposed to be opened in every provincial city. This was not done immediately. In 1824, only 24 gymnasiums operated in Russia. There was only one gymnasium in all of Siberia (in Tobolsk). After 30 years, the number of gymnasiums was increased to 43. Three gymnasiums began to operate in Siberia (in Tobolsk, Tomsk and Irkutsk). Many noble children were raised in private boarding schools or by home teachers. The tutors, usually French or German, were not very educated. After the end of the Patriotic War, captured French officers returned home, and the soldiers of the “Great Army” became tutors and raised a whole generation of Russian nobles.

In the first half of the 19th century. The development of the female education system, the foundations of which were laid under Catherine II, continued. New institutions for noble daughters were opened in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Saratov, Irkutsk and other cities. The goal of these institutions was to educate “good wives, caring mothers, exemplary mentors for children, housewives.”

The development of primary public education lagged far behind. The Church, some landowners, and certain departments (for example, the Ministry of State Property) opened schools here and there for children from the people. But there was no general system of primary education. A significant part of the urban population was literate (although illiterate people were found even among the merchant class). Among peasants, literacy was about 5%.

Nevertheless, among the Russian scientists there were also people from the common people. Mostly young men from noble families, the clergy, merchants, and also from the hereditary intelligentsia went into science.

Science in Russia. Russian science achieved great success in those years. Kazan University professor Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792-1856) built a new, non-Euclidean geometric system. Another outstanding Russian scientist Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin (1812-1880) also worked at Kazan University in those years. He managed to synthesize aniline, an organic dye for the textile industry. Before Zinin's discovery, this dye was extracted from indigo, which grows in southern countries. Zinin obtained it from coal tar. This was one of the first major successes in the development of organic chemistry.

In the field of physics, important discoveries were made by V.V. Petrov and B.S. Jacobi. Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov (1761 -1834) investigated the electric arc and electric discharge in rarefied gas and showed the possibility of using them for lighting and melting metals. Boris Semenovich Jacobi (1801 -1874) conducted research in the field of electrochemistry. He discovered the method of galvanoplasty.

In the Ural city of Zlatoust, the outstanding Russian metallurgist Pavel Petrovich Anosov (1799-1851) revealed the secret of ancient damask steel, created steel blades with which it was possible to crumble the hardest chisels and cut through scarves thrown up from the finest fabric. Anosov's works formed the basis of the science of high-quality steels.

In 1839, the construction of the Pulkovo Observatory near St. Petersburg was completed. The building's design included three rotating towers for the main telescopes. There are known high reviews from foreign scientists about the remarkable design of the observatory building and the accuracy of its instruments. An outstanding astronomer of the 19th century worked at the Pulkovo Observatory. Vasily Yakovlevich Struve (1793-1864). It was he who discovered the concentration of stars in the main plane of the Milky Way.

The name of the remarkable surgeon Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881) became known to the general Russian public in connection with his dedicated work in besieged Sevastopol. It was not easy for him to observe the suffering of the wounded - he knew how he could help them, but could not always do it. Back in 1847, at the Academy of Sciences, he gave a report on operations under ether anesthesia. But in Sevastopol, sometimes there was a shortage of not only ether, but also ordinary bandages. And yet, thousands of wounded were saved thanks to the skillful hands of Pirogov.

The first half of the 19th century was the time of further development of national historical science. The growth of national self-awareness of the Russian people was impossible without illuminating its past. Meanwhile, there were no systematic publicly available works on the history of Russia at that time. Responding to public requests, Alexander I commissioned Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) to write the history of Russia. Karamzin, a sentimentalist writer and publicist, was not a professional historian. But he took the assignment seriously and, over the course of several years of hard work, managed to achieve great success. The first 8 volumes of his “History of the Russian State” were published in 1816-1817, the last, 12th volume - in 1829. The author managed to bring events to 1611. Karamzin believed that the history of mankind is the history of the struggle of reason against error, enlightenment - with ignorance. He assigned a decisive role in history to great people. For him, psychological analysis of their actions was the main method of explaining historical events. “The History of the Russian State” by N. M. Karamzin was a huge success with the public and was reprinted several times.

Russian travelers. Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for domestic geographers.

In 1803-1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". Another ship, the Neva, was commanded by captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored places were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.

The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious region around the South Pole. It was assumed that there was a vast Southern continent there (the name “Antarctica” was not in use then) by the English navigator J. Cook in the 70s. XVIII century crossed the Antarctic Circle, encountered impassable ice and declared that sailing further south was impossible. They believed him, and for 45 years no south polar expeditions were undertaken.

In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition on two sloops to the southern polar seas under the leadership of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of Mirny was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer: he participated in Krusenstern's voyage. Lazarev subsequently became famous as a combat admiral, who trained a whole galaxy of Russian naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).

The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it almost closely (in the area of ​​the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf), the travelers concluded that in front of them was an “ice continent.” Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to its homeland, having discovered Antarctica and completely sailed around it on small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.

In 1811, Russian sailors led by captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin’s notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society to the life of this mysterious country. Golovkin's student Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka, and South America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played a major role in the development of geographical science.

Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky (1814-1876). Rejecting the court career that was opening up to him, he achieved appointment as commander of the Baikal military transport. He is on it in 1848-1849. sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He discovered the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.

The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant countries, local residents often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

Development of Russian industry in the first half of the 19th century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Exacerbation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. “The days of Alexander were a wonderful beginning.”

Peasant question. Decree "On Free Plowmen". Government measures in the field of education. Government activities M.M. Speransky and his plan for state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. Balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I. Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of war. Results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Alliance.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevism. Military settlements.

Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the “Union of Salvation” and the “Union of Prosperity”. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel and “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. Uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization and bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Intensifying repressive measures. Creation of the III department. Censorship regulations. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "On Obligated Peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Eastern question. Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in Russian foreign policy in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. Progress of military operations. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs from the late 20s - early 30s of the 19th century.

N.V. Stankevich’s circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen’s circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical Letter" by P.Ya.Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

Peasant reform. Preparation of reform. "Regulation" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. Duties of peasants. Temporary condition.

Zemstvo, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The meaning of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia second half of the 19th century V. Social structure of the population.

Industrial development. Industrial revolution: essence, prerequisites, chronology. The main stages of the development of capitalism in industry.

Development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the 19th century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the 19th century.

Revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the 19th century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution". Assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of Narodnaya Volya.

The labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. A work issue arises. Factory legislation.

Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the 19th century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the 19th century.

St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the “inviolability” of autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

International position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of Three Emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the eastern question. Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, course of military operations. Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Education, 1996.

In the first half of the 19th century, education and enlightenment received further development . The basis for the development of the education system was the reform of 1803. The following types of educational institutions were established:

1. parish schools for children of peasants;

2. district schools for citizens;

3. provincial gymnasiums for noble children;

4. universities.

The country was divided into 6 educational districts, each of which had educational institutions of all types.

The Ministry of Public Education was created to organize and manage educational institutions. In addition to Moscow University, universities were opened in Kazan, St. Petersburg, Kharkov, Vilna, Dorpat. Lyceums close to universities in terms of curriculum were Tsarskoselsky near St. Petersburg, Demidovsky in Yaroslavl, Richelievsky in Odessa. These were mainly educational institutions of the nobility. Every decade, more and more commoners entered universities. However, at the beginning of the 19th century the number of universities in Russia increased. However, only 4 thousand students studied there.

Russian universities began to announce their scientific research.

In the 19th century, Russia gave the world a galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries alone looks quite impressive.

· Mathematics.

In the field of mathematics: N.I. Lobachevsky created the theory of non-Euclidean geometry, revolutionizing ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. Lobachevsky's geometry was not understood by his contemporaries. It was only on the 100th anniversary (1893) of his birth that his works became widely recognized and an international prize was established in his name.

For almost 19 years, Lobachevsky headed Kazan University and paid a lot of attention to the formation of the university library.

A.A. Markov, M.V. Ostrogradsky - studied the theory of probability.

· Astronomy.

Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world. In astronomy, the works received worldwide recognition V.Ya. Struve. Work on astrometry and the study of double stars has gained worldwide fame. He established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space.

Struve and his students, using the latest mathematical and physical methods, achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances.

The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was I.I. Littrov, who built a small observatory. His student is better known in astronomy THEM. Simonov, participant in the trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.

· Development of physics.

The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and physical phenomena of nature. He made a huge contribution to the study of electricity V.V. Petrov. He created a number of physical instruments and discovered the electric arc, which found wide practical application; E.H. Lenz formulated a rule determining the direction of the induction current; B.S. Jacobi designed several electric motors. In the 1840-1850s. B.S. Jacobi was developing a telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications. Engineer P.D. Shilling before the American inventor S. Morse, he created a recording electromagnetic telegraph that operated along the line St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo; mechanical engineers, serfs of the Demidov industrialists in the Urals, father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs in 1833-1834. built the first steam-powered railway in Russia; metallurgical engineer P.P. Anosov At the Zlatoust plant, he was the first in the world to use a microscope to study the structure of metal and, on the basis of a long experiment, developed a method for producing damask steel.

· Progress in chemistry.

Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements.

In the first half of the century, a strong chemistry school began to emerge at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the government’s special concern for overcoming the country’s technological backwardness. At the end of the 1830s. professor at Kazan University P.P. Zinin And K.K. Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories. In them already in 1842 ᴦ. Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for artificially producing aniline, etc.
Posted on ref.rf
His discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes and medicines in the country. And in 1844 ᴦ. Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.

A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.

· Medicine.

The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The famous Russian surgeon was a professor at the academy N.I. Pirogov, founder of military field surgery. He was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. N.V. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

· Story.

Particular attention was paid to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created a 12-volume History of the Russian State; CM. Soloviev wrote “History of Russia since ancient times” in 29 volumes; IN. Klyuchevsky wrote ʼʼRussian history courseʼʼ.

· Linguistics.

Linguistics has made significant achievements. IN AND. Dahl for 50 years he worked on compiling an “explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language”.

· Philosophy.

The 19th century was the time of the formation of Russian philosophy as an independent science. It develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements. Large figures: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, Vl. Soloviev.

· Geography.

The inclusion of new territories into the Russian Empire contributed to interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. lay in the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. At the same time, the seas and inland water basins of the Russian Empire were studied and described. As a result, maps and a description of the territory were drawn up, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.

A number of expeditions around the world were made. The first Russian round-the-world expedition on two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky(1803-1806) passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island, and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied and photographed. F.F. Belingshausen and M.P. Lazarev led a round-the-world expedition (1819-1821), which discovered Antarctica (sixth of the world) and numerous islands. In 1845 ᴦ. The Russian Geographical Society was established (for the study of the territory and seas of Russia). After the first expedition around the world, about 40 more trips around the world were made.

In general, Russian scientists have made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which have made Russia a scientifically advanced country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as if ahead of them. Scientific research was rarely subsidized by Russian entrepreneurs, as in Europe.

Material and moral reward for the work of the most talented Russian scientists was the award by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences of the Demidov Prize (since 1831) for published works on science, technology, and art.

In the first half of the 19th century, the development of education continued. Until the beginning of the 19th century, personal libraries in Russia were the property of the titled aristocracy. Gradually, reading became not just a fashion, but an urgent need.

In the first half of the 19th century, salons became the centers of cultural life of an educated society. Some noble houses began to turn into literary salons, attracting prominent writers, journalists, scientists, and artists. In St. Petersburg, salons were widely known A.P. Tail And A.O. Smirnova, in Moscow - A.P. Elagina, in Kazan - A. Fuchs.

Public lectures by university teachers became a means of disseminating education among the population. Οʜᴎ were varied in subject matter. The initiative in organizing public lectures belonged to Moscow University. In the 40s of the 19th century, lectures acquired wide public significance. T.N. Granovsky on general history.

In general, the development of education, enlightenment and science in the first half of the 19th century achieved impressive results .

Sciences in Russia in the first half of the 19th century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Sciences in Russia in the first half of the 19th century” 2014, 2015.