Scientific inventions of the 18th century. Development of scientific research in Russia in the 18th century
Since the middle of the 17th century. science became an important and dynamic social institution, the role of which in society has continuously increased until the present day. Only six planets were known in Kepler's time solar system visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. The planet Uranus was discovered by W. Herschel in 1781, Neptune was discovered by astronomer I.G. Halle and mathematician and astronomer W. Le Verrier in 1846, Pluto was discovered only in 1930. In formation classical mechanics and the establishment of a new worldview, the merit of Galileo is great. He sees the meaning of his creativity in the physical justification of heliocentrism and the teachings of Copernicus. Galileo lays the foundations of experimental natural science, showing that natural science requires the ability to make scientific generalizations from experience, and experiment is the most important method of scientific knowledge. Galileo's historical contribution to mechanics is as follows: + he distinguished between the concepts of uniform and non-uniform, accelerated motion; + formulated the concept of acceleration (rate of change of speed); + showed that the result of the action of a force on a moving body is not speed, but acceleration; + derived a formula connecting acceleration, path and time: S = 1/2 at 2 ; + formulated the principle of inertia (if no force acts on a body, then the body is either at rest or in a state of rectilinear uniform motion); + developed the concept of an inertial system; + formulated the principle of relativity of motion (all systems that move rectilinearly and uniformly relative to each other (i.e. inertial systems) are equal in relation to the description of mechanical processes); + discovered the law of independence of the action of forces (the principle of superposition).
Politically people had no opinion or had a very distorted opinion. An ordinary neighbor only from time to time and through news passing through the official channel, he received some information about the King of Spain, the collection of taxes or the request of soldiers for successive wars in Spain. There were no schools, the vast majority of people didn't even know how to read, and there were undoubtedly many people who had never even had the opportunity to see a map in their lives to find where Flanders, Italy, or the numerous possessions that the King of Spain had taken beyond the seas."
Based on these laws, it became possible to solve the simplest dynamic problems. An important role in the development of classical mechanics was played by the work of the Italian astronomer G. Borelli, whom Newton also counts among his predecessors. Developing the theory of the satellites of Jupiter, Borelli in 1666 put forward the idea that if a certain force attracts the satellites to the planet, and the planets to the Sun, then this force should be balanced by the oppositely directed centrifugal force arising from circular motion. This is how he explains the elliptical motion of the planets around the Sun. In 1666, Newton came up with the idea of universal gravitation, its relationship with the force of gravity on Earth, and the idea of how the force of gravity could be calculated. The method of studying natural phenomena developed by Newton turned out to be extremely fruitful. His doctrine of gravity is not a general natural philosophical reasoning and speculative scheme, but a logically strict, accurate (and for more than two centuries the only) fundamental theory, which has become a working tool for studying the surrounding world, especially movement celestial bodies. In 1672, Newton outlined his new corpuscular concept of light. In the 17th century systematic study of magnetic and electrical phenomena begins. In the 18th century The foundations of analytical mechanics were laid through the works of the so-called continental mathematicians. The works of L. Euler, J. D'Alembert, J. Lagrange, P. Laplace and others created the analytical apparatus of mechanics, developed mathematical analysis and theory differential equations, series theory, calculus of variations, probability theory, descriptive geometry, etc. In 1729, the Englishman S. Gray discovered the phenomenon of electrical conductivity.
The cultivation of flax and sheep's wool served to make textiles. It is true that silk is already known, but this type of fabric should be more for the wealthy social classes. There were also cotton fabrics, but wool and linen must have been the most common. Undoubtedly, even today in many places of our cities the name "Las Linares" has been preserved; to indicate areas where the plant was previously cultivated, serving the purpose of making hand-woven textiles for domestic consumption. In the Ensenada Cadastre there are numerous references to this important harvest.
Science in culture of the 17th century; main ideas; names; discoveries.
The scientific revolution of the 17th century paved the way for modern times. It destroyed the medieval picture of the world and established a new picture of the world, and with it a new system of values, different from the medieval one.
It took very little time for medieval theocentrism (God at the center) to give way to Renaissance anthropocentrism (man at the center), and the latter was replaced by the rationalism (mind at the center) of the New Age.
This was a time when they still traveled, as they had for centuries, on horses and in horse-drawn carriages. This facilitated access to knowledge in ever wider sectors of the rural world; which ultimately turned against the unique thought facilitated by the teachings of the Church. In addition, a series of gradual changes occurred that changed the way of thinking. For example, burial grounds were no longer churches, as they had been for centuries, and above all, large amounts of church property were no longer in the hands of the Church, which meant that economic power was no longer where it had always been.
In a concentrated form, the content of the new value paradigm was expressed by Francis Bacon in the famous formula “ Scientiapotentiaest!” ("Knowledge is power!").
The scientific revolution brought with it a new method of knowledge, which consisted in the experimental study of nature.
The scientific method of understanding the surrounding world is unique in world history and represents a highly original product of the development of human intelligence. Its essence lies in the formation of science as a special type of knowledge and a special type of activity for the formation of this knowledge. Science includes a system of principles, concepts, theoretical concepts, methods, in a certain way correlated with the world of facts. This relationship includes explanation, interpretation, prediction. Thanks to science, it became possible to break into the world of “secrets” of nature, making it possible to predict its phenomena and use them in practical activities. Milestones on this path can be the names of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo.
As is known, religious institutions played a similar role in our days. When money was needed, someone went to ask for a loan, for which the corresponding interest had to be paid. Because a certain amount of goods was required as collateral. According to some historians, the repayment period of the loan remained at the request of the debtor, which meant that the collection received from this loan was maintained over several generations.
The invention of plastics is an excellent example of how human ingenuity can produce substances that are in many ways better than those found naturally. Another important invention for everyday life was postal mail. Combining efficient transportation with development postal mail; He suggested that travel to distant lands did not mean, as had been the case for centuries, an almost complete loss of contact with places of origin.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Italian scientist, one of the founders of exact natural science, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He refuted the erroneous positions of Aristotle and laid the foundations of modern mechanics: he put forward the idea of the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the movement of bodies on an inclined plane, and the addition of movements. He studied structural mechanics, built a telescope with 32-fold magnification, thanks to which he made a number of astronomical discoveries, defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was subjected to the Inquisition (1633) and spent the end of his life in exile.
It is known, for example, that the soldiers who were supposed to serve in His Majesty's armies; they often left the country because, for them, being called up would mean practically dying in life, since there were insufficient opportunities to remain in contact with their families. Although successive inventions and discoveries reached the villages with some delay, the truth is that they arrived. Electric lighting was to be implemented in principle from modest mills installed in rivers, which served as modern hydroelectric power plants.
Johannes Kepler (1871-1630), German astronomer, one of the founders of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses, and invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.
Isaac Newton (1643-1727), English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, and developed a theory of light that combined corpuscular and wave concepts. He discovered the law of universal gravitation and created the foundations of celestial mechanics.
Energy lighting, however, is only one of many uses of electrical energy. This, while forming an integral part of every home, also contributed to the gradual arrival of radio stations, which, however, in the years preceding the Civil War would still be insufficient.
Since the 1950s, the presence of cars in villages has become increasingly frequent, while the still primitive road network has gradually developed. Televisions began to be present from those years. This invention, together with cinema, has allowed us to understand what the past is, much more attuned to the reality of what our ancestors had centuries ago. The pairs of cows or bulls that served the farm gave way to tractors; sickles and scythes modern cars for collecting cereals and meadow grass.
Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguist. One of the creators of differential calculus, he anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic. In the spirit of rationalism, he developed the doctrine of the innate ability of the mind to understand the highest categories of existence and the universal necessary truths of logic and mathematics.
Gradually, the primordial era of cities ceased to be his, to become, in many cases, football fields. Streets full of stones were paved in the last decades of the last century, and that “knocking on mud” was forgotten. The soil of the city was similar to city streets.
In this ever-accelerating race, the arrival of computers is, in my opinion, the last major milestone. Computers are common in most homes. Cell phones, which basically function like computers, connect us, amazingly easily, to any part of the world.
As far as we know, we have two possible options: one is complete extinction, as happened to other living beings; the other is evolution in all possible fields. They made discoveries that led to great advances in technology.
Christiaan Huygens (1629- 1695)- Dutch scientist, invented a pendulum clock with an escapement mechanism, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum. Created the wave theory of light. Together with R. Hooke, he established the constant points of the thermometer. Improved the telescope (Huygens eyepiece), discovered the rings of Saturn. Author of one of the first treatises on probability theory.
Thus, he created a path between the religious beliefs of the past and the emergence of reason and scientific inquiry. This century was a time of intellectual activity with science as the core. Until then, most thinkers rejected ideas if they violated accepted religious beliefs. In the age of reason, unusual ideas appeared and new information. All conclusions from these ideas were tested through experiments and observations. Scientists specialized in specific subjects. Notable discoveries were made by Robert Boyle in the field of chemistry; William Harvey, in medicine, and Sir Isaac Newton, in physics and mathematics.
Scientists such as Harvey, Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek contributed to many areas of biology.
William Harvey (1576 -1637), English physician, founder of modern physiology and embryology. He described the systemic and pulmonary circulation and was the first to express the idea of the origin of “everything living from an egg.”
Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), Italian biologist and physician, one of the founders of microanatomy, discovered capillary circulation.
Newton's idea that everything in heaven and earth could be understood by reason gave science an almost religious meaning. Meetings of scientists during the decade of academies became popular, with the Royal Society of London and the Royal Academy of Paris receiving sponsorship for the next 200 years, for example. Throughout Europe, new scientific ideas led to a large number of practical inventions. Such inventions were sought after by sailors, merchants, generals and kings, and there was the potential to make large sums of money.
Mechanical devices such as clocks, bombs, planetariums, cannons, textile machines and engineering tools were developed, sometimes by lonely geniuses with little money. For the first time, heat can be measured accurately thanks to the newly invented thermometer. Advances in mathematics kept pace with science. The invention of calculus, logarithms, and the sliding rule allowed scientists to create detailed calculations to support their theories. This entire situation brought to light the ideas of the Renaissance and the exploration of the Age of Reason, which with each passing century created the foundations of the science and technology we have today.
Anton Levenguk (1632-1723), Dutch naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. He made lenses with 150-300x magnification, which made it possible to study microbes, blood cells, etc.
Thus, through the works of scientific researchers of the 17th century. the basis for technological progress was created.
The scientific discoveries of the 17th and 18th centuries were supplemented by a philosophical justification for a new method of cognition and the affirmation of the principle according to which science is called upon to serve humanity.
Examples of science and technology from the colonial era
Early industrial machines, such as this screw press, made it easier to process large quantities of materials. This was the first car for. The French René Descartes argued that only ideas that could be proven by evidence or reason were true. This diagram illustrates his theory regarding the coordination of the senses.
The fabric was strong enough to deflect a sword attack while still allowing the wearer to move easily. Firearms, such as the one pictured, kept monarchs on their thrones. Only kings could afford to equip their armies with weapons. As a result, many of the kings became extremely powerful, and therefore the rebels were unable to overthrow them.
The new philosophy originates from Francis Bacon and René Descartes.
The significance of F. Bacon (1561–1626) lies in the final break with scholasticism and in the substantiation of a new scientific method of knowledge.
Bacon criticized attempts to link natural science theories to the text of Holy Scripture. He called on science to observe natural phenomena and learn to use them to improve human life, and not to search for the purpose for which God created this or that phenomenon.
Other thinkers followed the line of rationalism, from Spinoza to Locke and Leibniz, making significant advances in certain areas of knowledge. On the other hand, societies of scientists are beginning to sprout. Mecanism applied to medicine left Renaissance anatomy with figures such as Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. Borelli applied mathematical laws to the study of mechanics and animal movements. Modern authors are Crone and Willis.
William Crone discussed muscle structure and the phenomenon of muscle contraction. Science and technology complement the social and political will of societies to control their own destinies, their means and the power to do so. Using a magnetized needle, it points to magnetic North, which is different for each area of the planet and different from geographic North. The magnetic needle indicates the direction of the Earth's magnetic field, towards the north and south poles. The fashions of this time were somewhat reflected in the fashions of the middle ages, and there were three countries that dictated the trends of others: Spain, Italy and France. Some achievements: Compass, astrolabe, enterprise, gunpowder, place letters, Caravels. He is considered a subordinate person.
- It uses terrestrial magnetism as its means of operation.
- Introduction Introduction.
Bacon considered the main method of scientific knowledge to be “empirical.” This method is used in biology, anatomy, geology, etc. Its essence lies in the derivation of general principles based on the analysis of facts obtained through observation and experiment.
Another method of knowledge is the deductive method. It is used primarily in mathematics and mathematical physics and derives new knowledge from a certain set of initial premises and axioms.
Galileo Astronomical Telescope. Almost everything that was taught about physical science in high school had already been discovered at that time - and, of course, for more high level than what they teach in colleges. The development of classical mechanics had reached such a level of precision, allowing the precise calculation of planetary motions, that any small difference between theory and observation had to be seriously considered.
From a technological point of view, this knowledge was applied in the development of new vehicles - large ships, submarines, airships and even hang glider precursors. Very complex mathematical methods have been developed to study the wave-like phenomena of light.
This method was formulated by René Descartes (1596–1650), the great French mathematician and philosopher.
He owns the famous phrase: “I think, therefore I exist.” Descartes is considered the founder of modern philosophy, as he called for challenging any traditions, any beliefs. He proclaimed the sovereignty of reason, its ability and right to comprehend the truth. This position was fundamentally new compared to the previous method of thinking. Rationalism originates from Descartes. Not only as a philosophical and epistemological principle, but as a fundamental feature of the entire culture of modern times.
Thus, optics have expanded to cover not only what we see, but also certain types"invisible light" The first photographs required enormous exposure times, but then, with gradual technical improvements, it was possible to create "instant" photographs and then take sequences of photographs of moving objects. Before the end of the century, there were already methods for making color photographs. French physicist Gabriel Lippmann used the principle of light interference in thin films and was able to produce color photographs that were actually the forerunners of today's white light holograms.