What is computer encoding? Information coding is the educational and scientific activity of Vladimir Viktorovich Anisimov. State educational institution

General concepts

Definition 1

Coding- this is the transformation of information from one form of representation to another, the most convenient for its storage, transmission or processing.

Definition 2

Code called the rule for displaying one set of characters in another.

Definition 3

Binary code is a way of representing information using two symbols - $0$ and $1$.

Definition 4

Code length– the number of characters used to represent the encoded information.

Definition 5

Bit is one binary digit $0$ or $1$. One bit can encode two values: $1$ or $0$. Four values ​​can be encoded with two bits: $00$, $01$, $10$, $11$. Three bits encode $8$ different values. Adding one bit doubles the number of values ​​that can be encoded.

Picture 1.

Types of information encoding

There are the following types of information coding:

• color coding;
• coding of numerical information;
• coding of audio information;
• video encoding.

Encoding text information

Any text consists of a sequence of characters. Symbols can be letters, numbers, punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, round and square brackets etc.

Text information, like any other information, is stored in computer memory in binary form. To do this, each is assigned a certain non-negative number, called character code, and this number is written into the computer memory in binary form. The specific relationship between symbols and their codes is called coding system. Personal computers usually use a system ASCII encodings(American Standard Code for Informational Interchange - American Standard Code for Informational Interchange).

Note 1

Developers software created their own $8$-bit text encoding standards. Due to the additional bit, the encoding range in them was expanded to $256$ characters. To avoid confusion, the first $128$ characters in such encodings, as a rule, correspond to the ASCII standard. The remaining $128$ implements regional language features.

Note 2

Eight-bit encodings common in our country are KOI8, UTF8, Windows-1251 and some others.

Color coding

To store a photograph in binary code, it is first virtually divided into many small colored dots called pixels(something like a mosaic). Once broken down into dots, the color of each pixel is encoded into a binary code and stored on a storage device.

Example 1

If an image is said to be, for example, $512 x 512 pixels in size, this means that it is a matrix formed of $262,144 pixels (the number of vertical pixels multiplied by the number of horizontal pixels).

Example 2

The device that “breaks” images into pixels is any modern camera (including a webcam, phone camera) or scanner. And if the camera’s characteristics say, for example, “$10$ Mega Pixels,” then the number of pixels into which this camera divides the image for recording in binary code is 10 million. The more pixels the image is divided into, the more realistic the photo looks in decoded form (on the monitor or after printing).

However, the quality of encoding photographs into binary code depends not only on the number of pixels, but also on their color diversity. Algorithms for recording color in binary code there are several. The most common one is RGB. This abbreviation is the first letters of the names of three primary colors: red - EnglishRed, green – English Green, blue – English Blue. By mixing these three colors in different proportions, you can get any other color or shade.

This is what the RGB algorithm is based on. Each pixel is written in binary code by indicating the amount of red, green and blue involved in its formation.

The more bits allocated to encode a pixel, the more options for mixing these three channels can be used and the greater the color saturation of the image.

Definition 6

The color variety of pixels that make up an image is called color depth.

Encoding graphic information

The technique described above for forming images from small dots is the most common and is called raster . But besides raster graphics, computers also use the so-called Vector graphics .

Vector images are created only using a computer and are formed not from pixels, but from graphic primitives (lines, polygons, circles, etc.).

Vector graphics are drawing graphics. It is very convenient for computer “drawing” and is widely used by designers in the graphic design of printed materials, including the creation of huge advertising posters, as well as in other similar situations. A vector image in binary code is written as a collection of primitives indicating their sizes, fill color, location on the canvas and some other properties.

Example 3

To record on a storage device vector image circle, the computer only needs to encode in binary code the type of object (circle), the coordinates of its center on the canvas, the length of the radius, the thickness and color of the line, and the fill color.

In a raster system, the color of each pixel would have to be encoded. And if the image size is large, it would require significantly more storage space to store it.

However, the vector encoding method does not allow realistic photos to be written in binary code. Therefore, all cameras work only on the principle of raster graphics. The average user has to deal with vector graphics It doesn't happen often in everyday life.

Encoding numerical information

When encoding numbers, the purpose for which the number was entered into the system is taken into account: for arithmetic calculations or simply for output. All data encoded in the binary system is encrypted using ones and zeros. These symbols are also called bits. This encoding method is the most popular, because it is the easiest to organize technologically: the presence of a signal is $1$, the absence is $0$. Binary encryption has only one drawback - the length of the symbol combinations. But from a technical point of view, it is easier to operate a bunch of simple, similar components than a small number of more complex ones.

Note 3

Integers are encoded simply by converting numbers from one number system to another. To encode real numbers, $80$-bit encoding is used. In this case, the number is converted to standard form.

Encoding of audio information

Definition 7

Any sound heard by a person is an air vibration, which is characterized by two main indicators: frequency and amplitude. Oscillation amplitude- this is the degree of deviation of the air state from the initial one with each oscillation. It is perceived by us as the volume of sound. Oscillation frequency is the number of deviations of air states from the initial one per unit of time. It is perceived as the pitch of the sound.

Example 4

So, a quiet mosquito squeak is a sound from high frequency, but with a small amplitude. The sound of a thunderstorm, on the contrary, has a large amplitude but a low frequency.

The way a computer works with sound can be described in general terms as follows. The microphone converts air vibrations into electrical vibrations with similar characteristics. A computer's sound card converts electrical vibrations into binary code, which is stored on a storage device. When playing such a recording, the reverse process (decoding) occurs - the binary code is converted into electrical vibrations that enter the audio system or headphones. Speakers speaker system or headphones have the opposite effect of a microphone. They convert electrical vibrations into air vibrations.

The principle of dividing a sound wave into small sections is the basis of binary audio coding. The computer's audio card divides the sound into very small time segments and encodes the intensity of each of them into a binary code. This splitting of sound into parts is called sampling. The higher the sampling frequency, the more accurately the geometry of the sound wave is recorded and the better the quality of the recording.

Definition 8

The quality of the recording also depends heavily on the number of bits used by the computer to encode each section of audio resulting from sampling. The number of bits used to encode each section of audio resulting from sampling is called depth of sound.

Video encoding

Video recording consists of two components: sound And graphic .

Encoding the audio track of a video file into binary code is carried out using the same algorithms as encoding regular audio data. The principles of video encoding are similar to raster graphics encoding (discussed above), although they have some features. As you know, video recording is a sequence of rapidly changing static images (frames). One second of video can consist of $25$ or more pictures. At the same time, each next frame differs only slightly from the previous one.

Given this feature, video encoding algorithms, as a rule, provide for recording only the first (base) frame. Each subsequent frame is formed by recording its differences from the previous one.

Encoding information in a computer

All information processed by the computer must be represented binary code using two digits - 0 and 1. These two characters are usually called binary digits, or bits. Using two numbers 1 and 0 you can encode any message. This was the reason that two important processes must be organized in the computer:

encoding, which is provided by input devices when converting input information into a computer-perceivable form, that is, into binary code; decoding, which is provided by output devices when converting data from binary code into a form that can be understood by humans.

From the point of view of technical implementation, the use of the binary number system for encoding information turned out to be much more
simpler than using other methods. Indeed, it is convenient to encode information as a sequence of zeros and ones if we imagine these values ​​as two possible stable states of an electronic element:

0 - no electrical signal or signal is present low level; 1 - signal present or the signal is at a high level.

These conditions are easy to distinguish. The disadvantage of binary encoding is long codes. But in technology it is easier to deal with a large number of simple elements than with a small number of complex ones.

Even in everyday life, you have to deal with a device that can only be in two stable states: on/off. Of course, this is a switch that is familiar to everyone. But it turned out to be impossible to come up with a switch that could stably and quickly switch to any of 10 states. As a result, after a number of unsuccessful attempts, the developers came to the conclusion that it was impossible to build a computer based on the decimal number system. And the basis for representing numbers in a computer was precisely binary system Reckoning.

Currently there are different ways binary encoding and decoding of information in a computer. First of all, it depends on the type of information, namely, what should be encoded: text, numbers, graphics or sound. In addition, when encoding numbers, how they will be used plays an important role: in text, in calculations, or in the input-output process. Features of technical implementation are also imposed.

Encoding graphic information

There are two ways to create and store graphic objects on your computer - as a raster image or as a vector image. Each type of image uses its own encoding method.

A raster image is a collection of dots used to display it on a monitor screen. Volume bitmap is defined as the product of the number of points and the information volume of one point, which depends on the number of possible colors. For a black and white image, the information volume of one point is 1 bit, since a point can be either black or white, which can be encoded with two digits - 0 or 1.

To encode 8 colors, 3 bits are needed; for 16 colors - 4 bits; for 6 colors - 8 bits (1 byte), etc.

Encoding of audio information

Sound is a sound wave with continuously varying amplitude and frequency. The greater the amplitude of the signal, the louder it is for a person; the higher the frequency of the signal, the higher the tone. In order for the computer to process sound, continuous sound signal must be converted into a sequence of electrical impulses (binary zeros and ones).

In the process of encoding a continuous audio signal, its time sampling is performed. A continuous sound wave is divided into separate small sections, and for each such section a certain amplitude value is set. Thus, the continuous dependence of the signal amplitude on time is replaced by a discrete sequence of loudness levels.

Modern sound cards provide 16-bit audio encoding depth. In this case, the number of signal levels will be 65536.

When binary coding a continuous audio signal, it is replaced by a sequence of discrete signal levels. The quality of encoding depends on the number of signal level measurements per unit time, i.e., on the sampling frequency. The greater the number of measurements made in 1 second (the higher the sampling frequency), the more accurate the binary coding procedure.

The number of measurements per second can range from 8000 to 48000, i.e. the sampling frequency of an analog audio signal can take values ​​from 8 to 48 kHz - audio CD sound quality. It should also be taken into account that both mono and stereo modes are possible.

Presentation of video information

Recently, computers are increasingly used to work with video information. The simplest way to do this is to watch movies and video clips. It should be clearly understood that processing video information requires a very high speed of the computer system.

What is the film from a computer science point of view? First of all, it is a combination of sound and graphic information. In addition, to create the effect of movement on the screen, an inherently discrete technology for quickly changing static images is used. Studies have shown that if more than 10-12 frames change in one second, then the human eye perceives the changes in them as continuous.

It would seem that if the problems of encoding statistical graphics and sound are solved, then saving the video image will not be difficult. But this is only at first glance, since, as the example discussed above shows, when using traditional methods of storing information, the electronic version of the film will turn out to be too large. A fairly obvious improvement is that the first frame is remembered in its entirety (in the literature it is usually called the key frame), and in the following ones only the differences from the initial frame are saved (difference frames).

There are many different formats for representing video data.

IN Windows environment, for example, the Video format has been used for more than 10 years (starting with version 3.1) for Windows, based on universal files with the AVI extension (Audi o Video Interleave - alternating audio and video).

A technology called DivX (derived from the abbreviation of the word Digital Video Express) has become widespread. Thanks to DivX, it was possible to achieve a compression level that made it possible to fit a high-quality recording of a full-length film onto one CD - compressing a 4.7 GB DVD film to 650 MB.

The same information can be presented in several forms. Basic coding methods allow you to do this in modern world. After the appearance computer technology there was a need to encode any type of information that a person works with. But solving this type of problem began long before the advent of computers.

Navigator by methods

1 way. Binary coding.

Binary coding is considered one of the most popular and widespread methods of presenting information. In work with computers, robots and CNC machines program controlled most often encode information in the form of words of the binary alphabet.

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Method 2. Shorthand.

This method is classified as a coding method. text information using special characters. This method is the fastest when recording spoken language. Only some specially trained people, who are called stenographers, have stenography skills. Such people manage to write down the text synchronously with the speech of the person who is speaking.

3 way. Synchronization.

In the process of working with digital information Synchronization is of particular importance. At the time of reading or recording information, it is important to accurately determine the time of each change of sign. If there is no synchronization, then the period of sign change may be determined incorrectly. As a result, data loss or corruption will inevitably occur.

4 way. Run Length Limited - RLL.

Today, one of the most popular methods is encoding information with a limitation on the length of the recording field. Thanks to this method, one and a half times more data can be placed on the disk than during the recording process using the MFM method. Using this method, not a single bit is encoded, but an entire group.

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5 way. Conversion tables.

A conversion table is one that contains a list of encoded characters, ordered in a special way. Accordingly, the symbol is converted into its binary code and vice versa.

6 way. Matrix method.

Matrix coding principle graphic images consists in the fact that the picture is divided into a specified number of columns and rows. After this, each element of the resulting grid is encoded according to the selected rule.

Now write a comment!

Encoding of information. In the process of transforming information from one form of representation (sign system) to another, coding is carried out. The encoding tool is a correspondence table, which establishes a one-to-one correspondence between signs or groups of signs of two different sign systems.

In the process of exchanging information, it is often necessary to perform operations of encoding and decoding information. When you enter an alphabet character into a computer by pressing the corresponding key on the keyboard, it is encoded, i.e., converted into computer code. When a sign is displayed on a monitor screen or printer, the reverse process occurs - decoding, when the sign is converted from a computer code into a graphic image.

Image and sound encoding. Information, including graphic and audio, can be presented in analog or discrete form. With analog representation physical quantity takes on an infinite number of values, and its values ​​change continuously. With a discrete representation, a physical quantity takes on a finite set of values, and its value changes abruptly.

An example of an analog representation of graphic information is, say, a painting whose color changes continuously, and a discrete one is an image printed using inkjet printer and consisting of individual dots of different colors.

An example of analog storage of sound information is a vinyl record (the sound track changes its shape continuously), and a discrete one is an audio CD (the sound track of which contains areas with different reflectivity).

Graphic and audio information from analogue to discrete form is converted by sampling, i.e., dividing a continuous graphic image and a continuous (analog) audio signal into individual elements. The sampling process involves encoding, i.e., assigning each element a specific value in the form of a code.

Sampling is the conversion of continuous images and sound into a set of discrete values, each of which is assigned a value of its code.

Coding of information in living organisms. Genetic information determines the structure and development of living organisms and is inherited. Genetic information is stored in the cells of organisms in the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. DNA molecules are made up of four different components (nucleotides) that form the genetic alphabet.

The human DNA molecule includes about three billion nucleotide pairs, and it encodes all the information about the human body: its appearance, health or susceptibility to disease, abilities, etc.

6. Basic concepts of the topic “Information and Management”: numerical and symbolic coding of information

Coding of numerical information.

The similarity in encoding numerical and textual information is as follows: in order to be able to compare data of this type, different numbers (as well as different characters) there must be different code. The main difference between numeric data and symbolic data is that in addition to the comparison operation, various mathematical operations are performed on numbers: addition, multiplication, root extraction, logarithm calculation, etc. The rules for performing these operations in mathematics are developed in detail for numbers represented in the positional number system.

The main number system for representing numbers in a computer is binary. positioning system Reckoning.

Encoding text information

Currently, most users use a computer to process text information, which consists of symbols: letters, numbers, punctuation marks, etc. Let's calculate how many symbols and how many bits we need.

10 numbers, 12 punctuation marks, 15 characters arithmetic operations, letters of the Russian and Latin alphabet, TOTAL: 155 characters, which corresponds to 8 bits of information.

Units of information measurement.

1 byte = 8 bits

1 KB = 1024 bytes

1 MB = 1024 KB

1 GB = 1024 MB

1 TB = 1024 GB

The essence of encoding is that each character is assigned a binary code from 00000000 to 11111111 or a corresponding decimal code from 0 to 255.

It must be remembered that currently five different code tables are used to encode Russian letters (KOI - 8, CP1251, CP866, Mac, ISO), and texts encoded using one table will not be displayed correctly in another

The main display of character encoding is the ASCII code - American Standard Code for Information Interchange, which is a 16 by 16 table where characters are encoded in hexadecimal notation.

oding of symbolic (text) information.

The main operation performed on individual text characters is character comparison.

When comparing characters, the most important aspects are the uniqueness of the code for each character and the length of this code, and the choice of encoding principle itself is practically irrelevant.

Various conversion tables are used to encode texts. It is important that the same table is used when encoding and decoding the same text.

Conversion table is a table containing a list of encoded characters ordered in some way, according to which the character is converted into its binary code and back.

The most popular conversion tables: DKOI-8, ASCII, CP1251, Unicode.

Historically, 8 bits or 1 byte was chosen as the code length for character encoding. Therefore, most often one character of text stored in a computer corresponds to one byte of memory.

With a code length of 8 bits, there can be 28 = 256 different combinations of 0 and 1, so no more than 256 characters can be encoded using one conversion table. With a code length of 2 bytes (16 bits), 65536 characters can be encoded.

7. Basic concepts of the topic “Information and Management”: graphic coding of information.

Coding of graphic information.

An important step in encoding a graphic image is dividing it into discrete elements (sampling).

The main ways to represent graphics for storage and processing using a computer are raster and vector images

A vector image is a graphic object consisting of elementary geometric shapes (most often segments and arcs). The position of these elementary segments is determined by the coordinates of the points and the radius. For each line, binary codes are indicated for the line type (solid, dotted, dash-dotted), thickness and color.

A raster image is a collection of points (pixels) obtained as a result of image sampling in accordance with the matrix principle.

The matrix principle of encoding graphic images is that the image is divided into a given number of rows and columns. Then each element of the resulting grid is encoded according to the selected rule.

Pixel (picture element) is the minimum unit of an image, the color and brightness of which can be set independently of the rest of the image.

In accordance with the matrix principle, images are constructed, output to the printer, displayed on the display screen, and obtained using a scanner.

The higher the image quality, the denser the pixels are, that is, the higher the resolution of the device, and the more accurately the color of each of them is encoded.

For a black-and-white image, the color code for each pixel is specified by one bit.

If the picture is colored, then for each point a binary code for its color is specified.

Since colors are encoded in binary code, if, for example, you want to use a 16-color picture, then you will need 4 bits (16=24) to encode each pixel, and if it is possible to use 16 bits (2 bytes) to encode color one pixel, then you can transmit 216 = 65536 different colors. Using three bytes (24 bits) to encode the color of a single point allows you to reflect 16,777,216 (or about 17 million) different shades of color - the so-called “true color” mode. Note that these are currently used, but are far from the maximum capabilities of modern computers.

8 Basic concepts of the topic “Information and Management”: alphabet, code

An alphabet is an ordered set of characters used to encode messages in a language.

The power of the alphabet is the number of characters of the alphabet.
The binary alphabet contains 2 characters, its power is two.
Messages written using ASCII characters use a 256-character alphabet. Messages written in UNICODE use an alphabet of 65,536 characters.

From the standpoint of computer science, information carriers are any sequences of symbols that are stored, transmitted and processed using a computer. According to Kolmogorov, the information content of a sequence of symbols does not depend on the content of the message; the alphabetic approach is objective, i.e. it does not depend on the subject receiving the message.

9 Basic concepts of information measurement: bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte

Bit, Byte, Kilobyte, Megabyte, Gigabyte– these are the units of measurement of information.

True, in computer calculations, 1 kilobyte is not 1000 bytes, but 1024. Why so many? Information in a computer is presented in binary form and it is generally accepted that a kilobyte is 2 to the tenth power of bytes or 1024 bytes.
Common units are shown below.

10 Quantitative and qualitative measurement of information.

11 Alphabetical and content approaches to measuring information

We got acquainted with number systems - ways of encoding numbers. Numbers give information about the number of items. This information must be encoded and presented in some kind of number system. Which one of known methods choose depends on the problem being solved.
Until recently, computers mainly processed numerical and textual information. But a person receives most of the information about the outside world in the form of images and sound. In this case, the image turns out to be more important. Remember the proverb: “It is better to see once than to hear a hundred times.” Therefore, today computers are beginning to work more and more actively with images and sound. We will definitely consider ways to encode such information.

Binary coding of numeric and text information.

Any information is encoded in a computer using sequences of two numbers - 0 and 1. The computer stores and processes information in the form of a combination electrical signals: voltage 0.4V-0.6V corresponds to logical zero, and voltage 2.4V-2.7V corresponds to logical one. Sequences of 0 and 1 are called binary codes , and the numbers 0 and 1 are bits (binary digits). This encoding of information on a computer is called binary coding . Thus, binary encoding is encoding with the minimum possible number of elementary symbols, encoding by the simplest means. This is why it is remarkable from a theoretical point of view.
Engineers are attracted to binary coding of information because it is easy to implement technically. Electronic circuits to process binary codes must be in only one of two states: there is a signal / no signal or high voltage/low voltage .
In their work, computers operate with real and integer numbers, presented in the form of two, four, eight and even ten bytes. To represent the sign of a number when counting, an additional sign digit , which is usually located before the numeric digits. For positive numbers, the value of the sign bit is 0, and for negative numbers - 1. To write the internal representation of a negative integer number (-N), you must:
1) get additional code numbers N by replacing 0 with 1 and 1 with 0;
2) add 1 to the resulting number.

Since one byte is not enough to represent this number, it is represented as 2 bytes or 16 bits, its complement code is 1111101111000101, therefore -1082=1111101111000110.
If a PC could only handle single bytes, it would be of little use. In reality, a PC works with numbers that are written in two, four, eight and even ten bytes.
Since the late 60s, computers have increasingly been used to process text information. To represent text information, 256 different characters are usually used, for example, capital and small letters of the Latin alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks, etc. In most modern computers, each character corresponds to a sequence of eight zeros and ones, called byte .
A byte is an eight-bit combination of zeros and ones.
When encoding information in these electronic computers, 256 different sequences of 8 zeros and ones are used, which allows 256 characters to be encoded. For example, the large Russian letter “M” has the code 11101101, the letter “I” has the code 11101001, the letter “P” has the code 11110010. Thus, the word “WORLD” is encoded with a sequence of 24 bits or 3 bytes: 111011011110100111110010.
The number of bits in a message is called the message information volume. This is interesting!

Initially, only the Latin alphabet was used in computers. It has 26 letters. So, five pulses (bits) would be enough to designate each one. But the text contains punctuation marks, decimal numbers, etc. Therefore, in the first English-language computers, a byte - a machine syllable - included six bits. Then seven - not only to distinguish capital letters from small ones, but also to increase the number of control codes for printers, signal lights and other equipment. In 1964, the powerful IBM-360 appeared, in which the byte finally became equal to eight bits. The last eighth bit was needed for pseudographics characters.
Assigning a particular binary code to a symbol is a matter of convention, which is recorded in the code table. Unfortunately, there are five different encodings of Russian letters, so texts created in one encoding will not be reflected correctly in another.
Chronologically, one of the first standards for encoding Russian letters on computers was KOI8 (“Information Exchange Code, 8-bit”). The most common encoding is the standard Cyrillic encoding Microsoft Windows, abbreviated CP1251 (“CP” stands for “Code Page” or “code page”). Apple has developed its own encoding of Russian letters (Mac) for Macintosh computers. The International Standards Organization (ISO) has approved the ISO 8859-5 encoding as a standard for the Russian language. Finally, a new international standard, Unicode, has appeared, which allocates not one byte for each character, but two, and therefore with its help you can encode not 256 characters, but as many as 65536.
All of these encodings continue the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code table, which encodes 128 characters.
ASCII character table:

Binary coding of text occurs as follows: when you press a key, a certain sequence of electrical impulses is transmitted to the computer, and each character corresponds to its own sequence of electrical impulses (zeros and ones in machine language). The keyboard and screen driver program determines the character using the code table and creates its image on the screen. Thus, texts and numbers are stored in the computer's memory in binary code and converted programmatically into images on the screen.

Since the 80s, the technology of processing graphic information on a computer has been rapidly developing. Computer graphics widely used in computer modeling in scientific research, computer simulators, computer animation, business graphics, games, etc.
Graphic information is presented on the display screen in the form of an image that is formed from dots (pixels). Look closely at a newspaper photograph and you will see that it also consists of tiny dots. If these are only black and white dots, then each of them can be encoded with 1 bit. But if there are shades in the photo, then two bits allows you to encode 4 shades of dots: 00 - white, 01 - light gray, 10 - dark gray, 11 - black. Three bits allow you to encode 8 shades, etc.
The number of bits required to encode one shade of color is called color depth.

IN modern computers resolution (number of dots on the screen), as well as the number of colors depends on the video adapter and can be changed by software.
Color images can have different modes: 16 colors, 256 colors, 65536 colors ( high color), 16777216 colors ( true color). Per point for mode high color 16 bits or 2 bytes are needed.
The most common screen resolution is 800 by 600 pixels, i.e. 480000 points. Let's calculate the amount of video memory required for high color mode: 2 bytes *480000=960000 bytes.
Larger units are also used to measure the amount of information:

Therefore, 960000 bytes is approximately equal to 937.5 KB. If a person speaks for eight hours a day without a break, then over the course of 70 years of life he will speak about 10 gigabytes of information (that’s 5 million pages - a stack of paper 500 meters high).
Information transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted per second. The transmission rate of 1 bit per second is called 1 baud.

A bitmap, which is a binary image code, is stored in the computer's video memory, from where it is read by the processor (at least 50 times per second) and displayed on the screen.

Binary coding of audio information.

Since the early 90s personal computers got the opportunity to work with audio information. Every computer with a sound card can save as files ( a file is a certain amount of information stored on disk and has a name ) and play audio information. Using special software (audio file editors) opens up wide possibilities for creating, editing and listening to sound files. Speech recognition programs are being created, and it becomes possible to control the computer with your voice.
Exactly sound card(map) converts analog signal into a discrete phonogram and vice versa, “digitized” sound into an analog (continuous) signal that goes to the speaker input.

In binary encoding of an analog audio signal, the continuous signal is sampled, i.e. is replaced by a series of its individual samples - readings. The quality of binary encoding depends on two parameters: the number of discrete signal levels and the number of samples per second. The number of samples or sampling frequency in audio adapters can be different: 11 kHz, 22 kHz, 44.1 kHz, etc. If the number of levels is 65536, then 16 bits (216) are designed for one audio signal. A 16-bit audio adapter encodes and reproduces audio more accurately than an 8-bit audio adapter.
The number of bits required to encode one audio level is called audio depth.
The volume of a mono audio file (in bytes) is determined by the formula:

With stereophonic sound, the volume of the audio file doubles, with quadraphonic sound it quadruples.
As programs become more complex and their functions increase, as well as the emergence of multimedia applications, the functional volume of programs and data increases. If in the mid-80s the usual volume of programs and data was tens and only sometimes hundreds of kilobytes, then in the mid-90s it began to amount to tens of megabytes. The amount of RAM increases accordingly.